*** พื้นที่ส่วนตัวของ พันตำรวจเอก ดร. ศิริพล กุศลศิลป์วุฒิ รองผู้บังคับการกองคดีอาญา สำนักงานกฎหมายและคดี นี้ จัดทำขึ้นเพื่อยืนหยัดในหลักการที่ว่า คนเรานั้นจะมีความเป็นมนุษย์โดยสมบูรณ์ได้ ก็ต่อเมื่อมีเสรีภาพในการแสดงความคิดโดยบริบูรณ์ และความเชื่อที่ว่าคนเราเกิดมาเสมอภาคและเท่าเทียมกัน ไม่มีอำนาจใดจะพรากความเป็นมนุษย์ไปจากเราได้ ไม่ว่่าด้วยวิธีการใด ๆ และอำนาจผู้ใด ***
*** We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. [Adopted in Congress 4 July 1776] ***
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อรัมภบท รัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐอเมริกา

วันนี้ นำอรัมภบท (Preamble) ของ CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA มาเล่าสู่กันฟังครับ บทนำสั้น ๆ ของรัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐฯ มีเนื้อความดังนี้


" We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."


อ่านดูข้อความข้างต้น ก็อาจจะแปลได้ว่า

"เรา ในฐานะประชาชนแห่งสหรัฐอเมริกา, เพื่อประโยชน์แห่งการสร้างสาธารณรัฐที่สมบูรณ์แบบ (a perfect Union), ส่งเสริมความยุติธรรม, ประกันความสงบสุขของประชาชน, จัดการป้องกันสาธารณประโยชน์ของประเทศ, ส่งเสริมความผาสุกของปวงชน, และ แสวงหาเสรีภาพและความมั่งคั่งของชาติ, (เรา) จึงได้ร่วมกันจัดทำรัฐธรรมนูญขึ้นมา เพื่อประเทศสหรัฐอเมริกา"




อ่านแล้วก็แสนจะธรรมดา ไม่เห็นเนื้อหาอะไรพิสดาร แต่ทำไม รัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐฯ จึงได้ศักดิ์สิทธิ์ ไม่เคยถูกย่ำยี โดยฝีมือของคณะผู้มีอำนาจหรือคณะทหารแบบไทย ๆ รัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐฯ มีการแก้ไขเพิ่มเติม ไม่กี่ครั้งเท่านั้น และ เป็นการแก้ไขเชิงนโยบายที่สำคัญ ในการประกันสิทธิเสรีภาพของประชาชน เช่น ในช่วงแรก มีการแก้ไขรัฐธรรมนุญ (Amendment) มาตราที่ ๑ ถึง ๑๐ (เรียกว่า Bill of Rights) เพื่อจะประกันมิให้รัฐบาลกลางเข้าไปยุ่งเกี่ยวแทรกแซงรัฐบาลมลรัฐมากเกินไป

สำหรับ Amendment อื่น ๆ มีการแก้ไขเพิ่มเติม ในภาวะที่จำเป็น เช่น หลังสงครามกลางเมือง มีการเลิกทาส และ การเคลื่อนไหวเพื่อสิทธิและเสรีภาพ (Civil Rights Movement) ซึ่งมีการแก้ไขเพิ่มเติม 14th Amendment ขึ้นมา เพื่อรับรองและป้องกันปัญหา รัฐบาลมลรัฐ เลือกปฏิบัติ ไม่รับรองสิทธิและเสรีภาพของคนผิวสี จึงได้บัญญัติว่า ประชาชนพลเมืองทุกคน เป็นประชาชนของสหรัฐฯ ไม่ใช่ ประชาชนภายใต้สังกัดของรัฐใครรัฐมันดังแต่ก่อน รัฐบาลมลรัฐจะละเมิดสิทธิของเขาไม่ได้ การแก้ไขครั้งล่าสุด เพื่อจะรับรองให้ รัฐบาลกลางมีอำนาจจัดเก็บภาษีรายได้ ฯลฯ จากประชาชนในสหรัฐฯ ตาม 16th Amendment เป็นต้น ซึ่งเกิดขึ้นหลังจากมีข้อโต้แย้งว่า รัฐไม่ควรจะมาจัดเก็บภาษี

ข้อมูลจาก Lexisnexis ซึ่งเป็น Database ทางกฎหมาย ที่สำคัญในสหรัฐฯ (ซึ่งดำเนินการโดยบริษัทเอกชน และเป็นที่นิยม แพร่หลายมาก ๆ เพราะรวมรวมเอกสารต่าง ๆ บทความทางกฎหมาย ประมวลกฎหมาย รายงานการประชุม ฯลฯ ไว้อย่างสมบูรณ์ รวมถึงมีความวิจารณ์ และอธิบายอย่างสมบูรณ์) ได้เขียนเพิ่มเติมเกี่ยวกับ ที่มาของรัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐฯ และ อรัมภบทข้างต้น ดังนี้

"In May, 1785, a committee of Congress made a report recommending an alteration in the Articles of Confederation, but no action was taken on it, and it was left to the state legislatures to proceed in the matter. In January, 1786, the legislature of Virginia passed a resolution providing for the appointment of five commissioners, who, or any three of them, should meet such commissioners as might be appointed in the other states of the Union, at a time and place to be agreed upon, to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interest and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several states such an act, relative to this great object, as, when ratified by them, will enable the United States in Congress effectually to provide for the same.


The Virginia commissioners, after some correspondence, fixed the first Monday in September as the time, and the city of Annapolis as the place for the meeting, but only four other states were represented, viz.: Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; the commissioners appointed by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island failed to attend. Under the circumstances of so partial a representation, the commissioners present agreed upon a report (drawn by Mr. Hamilton of New York) expressing their unanimous conviction that it might essentially tend to advance the interests of the Union if the states by which they were respectively delegated would concur, and use their endeavors to procure the concurrence of the other states, in the appointment of commissioners to meet at Philadelphia on the second Monday of May following, to take into consideration the situation of the United States; to devise such further provisions as should appear to them necessary to render the Constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigencies of the Union; and to report such an act for that purpose to the United States in Congress assembled as, when agreed to by them and afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state, would effectually provide for the same.


Congress, on the 21st of February, 1787, adopted a resolution in favor of a convention, and the legislatures of those states which had not already done so (with the exception of Rhode Island) promptly appointed delegates. On the 25th of May, seven states having convened, George Washington, of Virginia, was unanimously elected President, and the consideration of the proposed Constitution was commenced. On the 17th of September, 1787, the Constitution as engrossed and agreed upon was signed by all the members present, except Mr. Gerry, of Massachusetts, and Messrs. Mason and Randolph, of Virginia. The President of the convention transmitted it to Congress, with a resolution stating how the proposed federal government should be put in operation, and an explanatory letter. Congress, on the 28th of September, 1787, directed the Constitution so framed, with the resolution and letter concerning the same, to "be transmitted to the several legislatures in order to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each state by the people thereof, in conformity to the resolves of the convention."


On the 4th of March, 1789, the day which had been fixed for commencing the operation of government under the new Constitution, it had been ratified by the conventions chosen in each state to consider it, as follows: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connecticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 26, 1788; and New York, July 26, 1788.


The President informed Congress, on the 28th day of January, 1790, that North Carolina had ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789; and he informed Congress on the first of June, 1790, that Rhode Island had ratified the Constitution May 29, 1790. Vermont, in convention, ratified the Constitution January 10, 1791, and was, by an Act of Congress approved February 18, 1791, "received and admitted into this Union as a new and entire member of the United States."


สำหรับความสำคัญของ อรัมภบท ดังกล่างข้างต้นนั้น ศาลสูงสุด และนักกฎหมายสหรัฐฯ ต่างยอมรับว่า เป็นที่มาแห่งอำนาจทางกฎหมายที่จะให้อำนาจแก่องค์กรผู้ใช้อำนาจตามรัฐธรรมนูญ ในการดำเนินการตามวัตถุประสงค์ในการจัดทำรัฐธรรมนูญ ที่กล่าวไว้ คือ ความผาสุกของปวงชน ความยุติธรรม ฯลฯ ข้างต้น โดยมีคำอธิบายเพิ่มเติมอื่่น ๆ ที่สำคัญได้แก่


๑) คำว่า By the People of the United States ย่อมแสดงถึงว่า รัฐธรรมนูญมีพลังอำนาจเป็นกฎหมายสูงสุด ที่ไม่อาจจะล่วงละเมิดได้ เพราะมีที่มาจากอำนาจของปวงชน ผู้เป็นเจ้าของอำนาจอธิปไตย กฎหมายใดขัดหรือแย้งกับรัฐธรรมนูญ ย่อมไม่มีผลบังคับใช้

๒) คำว่า "To form a more perfect union" ตีความถึง ลักษณะการแบ่งแยกอำนาจระหว่างรัฐบาลกลางและรัฐบาลมลรัฐ ที่รัฐบาลกลางมีอำนาจจำกัด และการใช้อำนาจส่วนใหญ่ จะต้องให้เอกสิทธิ์แก่รัฐบาลมลรัฐ

๓) คำว่า "Ordian and establish" นั้น เป็นการเน้นย้ำว่า การบัญญัติรัฐธรรมนูญขึั้นมานั้น เป็นสิ่งที่มีคุณค่าสำคัญและบังคับได้ตามกฎหมาย (ไม่ใช่กระดาษเช็ดก้นที่ใครมีอำนาจก็จะยึดแล้วฉีกเล่นได้)

๔) คำว่า "Constitutional for the United States of America" นั้น เป็นการเน้นย้ำหลักการแบ่งแยกและผลบังคับของรัฐธรรมนูญว่า มีผลบังคับใช้กับหน่วยงานและองค์กรของรัฐบาลกลางเป็นสำคัญ นอกจากที่บัญญัติไว้ชัดแจ้งแล้ว อำนาจทั้งหลาย จะต้องเป็นไปตามรัฐธรรมนูญของมลรัฐ

๕) ผลของการบัญญัติรัฐธรรมนูญ รัฐธรรมนูญมีค่าบังคับสูงสุด และ จะต้องตีความให้มีผลบังคับในเชิงบวกไปในภายหน้า (ไม่มีผลบังคับย้อนหลัง) เว้นแต่จะมีบทบัญญัติชัดแจ้งบังคับไว้ ศาลสูงสุดมีอำนาจในการตีความถ้อยคำในรัฐธรรมนูญ ในกรณีที่ รัฐธรรมนูญใช้ถ้อยคำ เรียบ ง่าย ชัดเจน และมีลักษณะเป็นกลางแล้ว การตีความโดยอาศัยสิ่งอื่น ๆ นอกจากความสามัญสำนึกเป็นเรื่องไม่จำเป็น หากแต่เป็นถ้อยคำที่มีความหมายหลายนัย อาจจะค้นหาความหมายที่แท้น จากการพิจารณาจากองค์ประกอบรวมและการใช้แหล่งอ้างอิงอื่น

๖) การพิจารณาถึงกรอบวัตถุประสงค์และความหมายของรัฐธรรมนูญ หากพิจารณาตามถ้อยคำลักษณ์อักษรที่ปรากฎในรัฐธรรมนูญโดยลำพัง ย่อมทำให้ไม่อาจเข้าถึงความหมายที่แท้จริงของถ้อยคำในรัฐธรรมนูญได้ ด้วยเหตุนี้ การค้นหาวัตถุประสงค์ที่แท้จริงในการบัญญัติรัฐธรรมนูญ จึงจะต้องพิจารณาให้ถึงเหตุผลและความจำเป็นของที่มาแห่งอำนาจที่รัฐธรรมนูญกำหนด โดยค้นหาแหล่งอ้างอิงในการบัญญัติถ้อยคำนั้น ( เช่น จากรายงานการประชุม ฯลฯ )

๗) การพิจารณาถึงประวัติศาสตร์ ในการตีความรัฐธรรมนูญ ศาลมีพันธกรณีที่จะต้องพิจารณาหลักฐานทางประวัติศาสตร์ในการร่างรัฐธรรมนูญ เพื่อค้นหาความหมายที่แท้จริงของถ้อยคำที่ปรากฎในรัฐธรรมนูญ สามารถค้นหาและเข้าใจถึงความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างรัฐบาลกลางและท้องถิ่น ฯลฯ การค้นหาความหมายที่แท้จริงได้ ย่อมทำให้ศาลมีความชอบธรรมที่จะประกาศหลักการแห่งกฎหมายได้อย่างมีพลังอำนาจที่เป็นที่ยอมรับได้จากประชาชนทั่วไป ซึ่งโดยปกติ ศาลสูงสุด จะต้องพิจารณาเสมือนว่าตนเอ็ง เป็นผู้ร่างรัฐธรรมนูญ

๘) หลักการที่สำคัญมาก คือ การตีความรัฐธรรมนูญ จะต้องปฎิบัติได้จริง และ การตีความที่มีผลเป็นการขยายการจำกัดอำนาจรัฐบาลมลรัฐ เป็นสิ่งที่ไม่พึงกระทำ


....,.....



สำหรับรายละเอียดอื่น ๆ ปรากฎเป็นภาษาอังกฤษ ใน คอมเม้นท์ ข้างล่าง ดังนี้ ._




Create Date : 06 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551
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นักวิชาการ และศาลได้ตีความ อรัมภบทของรัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐฯ ในประเด็นต่าง ๆ (Interpretive Notes and Decisions) ดังนี้




1. Construction and effect of Preamble
2."People of the United States"
3."To form a more perfect union"
4."Ordain and establish"
5."Constitution for the United States of America"
6. Construction and effect of Constitution
7. Consideration of intent or purpose
8. Consideration of historical background
9.--Practical construction
10. Nature and powers of federal government
11.--Relationship among branches of government
12.--Relations with foreign governments
13.--Relations with state governments
14. Relations among state governments
15. Standing to raise constitutional questions
16.--Necessity of injury
17. Determination of constitutional questions
18.--Avoiding determination of constitutionality except where necessary
19.--Presumption in favor of constitutionality
20.--Separability




Return to Topic List 1. Construction and effect of Preamble

Preamble of Constitution has never been regarded as source of any substantive power conferred on government of United States, or on any of its departments. Jacobson v Massachusetts (1905) 197 US 11, 49 L Ed 643, 25 S Ct 358.


Return to Topic List 2.--"People of the United States"

Constitution was ordained and established by "the people of the United States," who were competent to invest general government with all powers which they might deem proper and necessary, to extend or restrain these powers according to their pleasure, and to give them paramount and supreme authority. Martin v Hunter's Lessee (1816) 14 US 304, 1 Wheat 304, 4 L Ed 97.

Government of United States is government of people from whom it emanates. McCulloch v Maryland (1819) 17 US 316, 4 Wheat 316, 4 L Ed 579, 42 CCF P 77296, 4 AFTR 4491 (criticized in Nevada ex rel. Wehrmeister v Loral Aerospace Corp. (1997, DC Nev) 1997 US Dist LEXIS 2736) and (criticized in United States v Nye County (1997, DC Nev) 957 F Supp 1172).

People of United States and citizens are synonymous terms. Scott v Sandford (1857) 60 US 393, 19 How 393, 15 L Ed 691 (superseded by statute as stated in Scott v Comptroller of the Treasury (1995) 105 Md App 215, 659 A2d 341) and (criticized in Arakaki v Hawaii (2000, DC Hawaii) 2000 US Dist LEXIS 22394) and (superseded by statute as stated in Hi-Voltage Wire Works, Inc. v City of San Jose (2000) 24 Cal 4th 537, 101 Cal Rptr 2d 653, 12 P3d 1068, 2000 CDOS 9442, 2000 Daily Journal DAR 12705, 79 CCH EPD P 40347) and (ovrld as stated in State v Dearmas (2004, RI) 841 A2d 659) and (criticized in Martinez-Aguero v Gonzalez (2005, WD Tex) 2005 US Dist LEXIS 2412).


Return to Topic List 3.--"To form a more perfect union"

People, through Constitution, established more perfect union by substituting national government acting with ample power directly upon citizens, instead of confederate government, which acted with powers greatly restricted, only upon states. Lane County v Oregon (1869) 74 US 71, 7 Wall 71, 19 L Ed 101 (superseded by statute as stated in Leitch v Department of Revenue (1982) 9 OTR 256) and (superseded by statute as stated in Leitch v Dep't of Revenue (1982) 9 OTR 256).

When Articles of Confederation were found to be inadequate to exigencies of country, Constitution was ordained "to form a more perfect union." Texas v White (1869) 74 US 700, 7 Wall 700, 19 L Ed 227 (ovrld in part by Morgan v United States (1885) 113 US 476, 28 L Ed 1044, 5 S Ct 588).


Return to Topic List 4.--"Ordain and establish"

"Ordain and establish" are definite words of enactment and stamp Constitution with dignity and character of law. Carter v Carter Coal Co. (1936) 298 US 238, 80 L Ed 1160, 56 S Ct 855, motion gr sub nom Helvering v Carter (1936, US) 17 AFTR 1344.


Return to Topic List 5.--"Constitution for the United States of America"

Constitution was ordained and established by people of United States for themselves, for their own government, and not for government of individual states. Barron v Baltimore (1833) 32 US 243, 7 Pet 243, 8 L Ed 672 (ovrld as stated in Silveira v Lockyer (2002, CA9 Cal) 312 F3d 1052, 2002 CDOS 11711, 2002 Daily Journal DAR 13739).

By Constitution, government is ordained and established for United States of America, and not for countries outside of its limits. In re Ross (1891) 140 US 453, 35 L Ed 581, 11 S Ct 897 (criticized in Ashkir v United States (2000) 46 Fed Cl 438).


Return to Topic List 6. Construction and effect of Constitution

If courts are to regard Constitution and if Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of legislature, Constitution, and not such ordinary act, must govern case to which they both apply; law repugnant to Constitution is void; when act of Congress is repugnant to Constitution, it cannot become law. Marbury v Madison (1803) 5 US 137, 1 Cranch 137, 2 L Ed 60.

Legislative construction of Constitution, repeatedly acted on by judiciary and executive, is entitled to no inconsiderable weight. Den ex dem. Murray v Hoboken Land & Improv. Co. (1856) 59 US 272, 18 How 272, 15 L Ed 372, 2 AFTR 2205.

That which is implied is as much part of Constitution as what is expressed. Ex parte Yarbrough (1884) 110 US 651, 28 L Ed 274, 4 S Ct 152 (criticized in United States v Baucum (1996, App DC) 317 US App DC 63, 80 F3d 539); South Carolina v United States (1905) 199 US 437, 50 L Ed 261, 26 S Ct 110, 3 AFTR 2775 (ovrld as stated in Garcia v San Antonio Metro. Transit Auth. (1985) 469 US 528, 83 L Ed 2d 1016, 105 S Ct 1005, 27 BNA WH Cas 65, 36 CCH EPD P 34995, 102 CCH LC P 34633).

Constitutional provisions for security of person and property should be liberally construed. Boyd v United States (1886) 116 US 616, 29 L Ed 746, 6 S Ct 524, 3 AFTR 2488 (ovrld as stated in United States v Abrams (1980, CA1 Mass) 615 F2d 541, 53 ALR Fed 663) and (ovrld as stated in United States v Haimowitz (1983, CA11 Fla) 706 F2d 1549, 13 Fed Rules Evid Serv 883, 71 ALR Fed 78) and (ovrld as stated in United States v Doe (1984) 465 US 605, 79 L Ed 2d 552, 104 S Ct 1237, 15 Fed Rules Evid Serv 1, 57 AFTR 2d 1270) and (ovrld as stated in In re Grand Jury Matter (Brown) (1985, CA3 Pa) 768 F2d 525, 18 Fed Rules Evid Serv 1281) and (ovrld as stated in State v Iglesias (1994) 185 Wis 2d 118, 517 NW2d 175, 42 ALR5th 909) and (ovrld as stated in In re Grand Jury Proceedings (Tanger) (1997, DC Mass) 173 FRD 336) and (ovrld as stated in Mayor & City Council of Baltimore v One 1995 Corvette (1998) 119 Md App 691, 706 A2d 43) and (criticized in Reeves v State (1998, Tex App Waco) 969 SW2d 471) and (criticized in In re Hyde (1998, BC SD NY) 222 BR 214) and (ovrld in part as stated in United States v Light (1998, CAAF) 48 MJ 187, 1998 CAAF LEXIS 44) and (criticized in Dorwart v Caraway (1998) 1998 MT 191, 290 Mont 196, 966 P2d 1121) and (criticized in United States v Doe (In re Three Grand Jury Subpoenas Duces Tecum Dated January 29, 1999) (1999, CA2 NY) 191 F3d 173) and (criticized in Moyer v Commonwealth (2000) 33 Va App 8, 531 SE2d 580) and (ovrld in part as stated in State v Eason (2001) 2001 WI 98, 245 Wis 2d 206, 629 NW2d 625) and (criticized in Holland v Donnelly (2002, SD NY) 216 F Supp 2d 227).

Constitution is construed to operate prospectively only, unless, on face of instrument, contrary intention is manifest beyond reasonable question. Shreveport v Cole (1889) 129 US 36, 32 L Ed 589, 9 S Ct 210.

Framers of Constitution employed words in their natural sense, and where they are plain and clear, resort to collateral aids to interpretation is unnecessary, and cannot be indulged in to narrow or enlarge text. McPherson v Blacker (1892) 146 US 1, 36 L Ed 869, 13 S Ct 3.

Where any particular word is obscure, or of doubtful meaning, taken by itself, its obscurity or doubt may be removed by reference to associated words, and meaning of a term may be enlarged or restrained by reference to object of whole clause in which it is used. Virginia v Tennessee (1893) 148 US 503, 37 L Ed 537, 13 S Ct 728.

Supreme Court is bound to interpret Constitution in light of the law as it existed at time it was adopted, not as reaching out for new guaranties of rights of citizen. Mattox v United States (1895) 156 US 237, 39 L Ed 409, 15 S Ct 337.

Constitutional provisions do not change, but their operation extends to new matters, as modes of business and habits of life of people vary with each succeeding generation. In re Debs (1895) 158 US 564, 39 L Ed 1092, 15 S Ct 900.

Words of Constitution are to be taken in their obvious sense and to have reasonable construction. Pollock v Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895) 158 US 601, 39 L Ed 1108, 15 S Ct 912, 3 AFTR 2602 (superseded by statute as stated in Penn Mut. Indem. Co. v Commissioner (1960, CA3) 277 F2d 16, 60-1 USTC P 9389, 5 AFTR 2d 1171) and (superseded by statute as stated in Graf v Commissioner (1982) TC Memo 1982-317, RIA TC Memo P 82317, 44 CCH TCM 66) and (superseded by statute as stated in Union Elec. Co. v United States (2004, CA FC) 363 F3d 1292) and (superseded by statute as stated in Curtis v Dep't of Revenue (2004) 17 OTR 414).

Words expressing various grants in Constitution are words of general import, and they are to be constructed as such, and as granting, to full extent, powers named. Fairbank v United States (1901) 181 US 283, 45 L Ed 862, 21 S Ct 648 (ovrld as stated in United States v Woodley (1983, CA9 Hawaii) 726 F2d 1328).

Whether clause in Constitution is to be restricted by rule of common law as it existed when Constitution was adopted depends upon terms or nature of particular clause. United States v Wood (1936) 299 US 123, 81 L Ed 78, 57 S Ct 177, reh den (1937) 299 US 624, 81 L Ed 459, 57 S Ct 319.

Ordinarily, courts do not construe words used in Constitution so as to give them narrower meaning than one which they had in common parlance of times in which Constitution was written. United States v South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n (1944) 322 US 533, 88 L Ed 1440, 64 S Ct 1162, reh den (1944) 323 US 811, 89 L Ed 646, 65 S Ct 26 and (superseded by statute as stated in Freier v New York Life Ins. Co. (1982, CA9 Mont) 679 F2d 780, 1982-2 CCH Trade Cases P 64828) and (superseded by statute as stated in Anglin v Blue Shield (1982, CA4 Va) 693 F2d 315, 1982-83 CCH Trade Cases P 65031) and (superseded by statute as stated in Gallagher v Motors Ins. Corp. (1992, Fla) 605 So 2d 62, 17 FLW S 468) and (superseded by statute as stated in American Deposit Corp. v Schacht (1995, ND Ill) 887 F Supp 1066) and (superseded by statute as stated in Stephens v National Distillers & Chem. Corp. (1995, CA2 NY) 69 F3d 1226) and (superseded by statute as stated in Amwest Surety Ins. Co. v Wilson (1995) 11 Cal 4th 1243, 48 Cal Rptr 2d 12, 906 P2d 1112, 95 CDOS 9590, 95 Daily Journal DAR 16625) and (superseded by statute as stated in In re Laitasalo (1996, BC SD NY) 193 BR 187, 28 BCD 946) and (superseded by statute as stated in Barnett Bank, N.A. v Nelson (1996) 517 US 25, 134 L Ed 2d 237, 116 S Ct 1103, 96 CDOS 2000, 96 Fulton County D R 1197, 9 FLW Fed S 451) and (superseded by statute as stated in United States v Rhode Island Insurers' Insolvency Fund (1996, CA1 RI) 80 F3d 616, 50 Soc Sec Rep Serv 492) and (superseded by statute as stated in United States v Frega (1996, SD Cal) 933 F Supp 1536) and (superseded by statute as stated in United States v Stewart (1997, ED Pa) 955 F Supp 385, RICO Bus Disp Guide (CCH) P 9238) and (superseded by statute as stated in Gerling Global Reinsurance Corp. v Low (2001, CA9 Cal) 240 F3d 739, 2001 CDOS 1105, 2001 Daily Journal DAR 1443) and (superseded by statute as stated in Lander v Hartford Life & Annuity Ins. Co. (2001, CA2 Conn) 251 F3d 101, CCH Fed Secur L Rep P 91456) and (superseded by statute as stated in Smith v PacifiCare Behavioral Health of California, Inc. (2001, 2nd Dist) 93 Cal App 4th 139, 113 Cal Rptr 2d 140, 2001 CDOS 9230, 2001 Daily Journal DAR 11463) and (superseded by statute as stated in Koken v Reliance Group Holdings, Inc. (In re Reliance Group Holdings, Inc.) (2002, BC ED Pa) 273 BR 374) and (superseded by statute as stated in Nebraska ex. rel. Wagner v J.A. Jones Constr. Co. (In re Amwest Sur. Ins. Co.) (2002, DC Neb) 245 F Supp 2d 1038).

In determining meaning and application of constitutional provisions, court is concerned with matters of substance not of form. Hooven & Allison Co. v Evatt (1945) 324 US 652, 89 L Ed 1252, 65 S Ct 870, reh den (1945) 325 US 892, 89 L Ed 2004, 65 S Ct 1198 and (ovrld in part by Limbach v Hooven & Allison Co. (1984) 466 US 353, 80 L Ed 2d 356, 104 S Ct 1837).

To infer qualifications in provision of Constitution does not comport with standards for expounding Constitution. Richfield Oil Corp. v State Bd. of Equalization (1946) 329 US 69, 91 L Ed 80, 67 S Ct 156.

Rules governing construction of statutes are applicable to construction of Constitution. Badger v Hoidale (1937, CA8 Minn) 88 F2d 208, 109 ALR 798.



โดย: POL_US วันที่: 6 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:15:23:28 น.  

 

Return to Topic List 7.--Consideration of intent or purpose

There are more urgent reasons for looking to ultimate purpose in examining powers conferred by Constitution than there are in construing statute, will, or contract; when investigating nature and extent of powers conferred by Constitution it is indispensable to keep in view objects for which powers were granted, and if general purpose is ascertained, language of provisions must be construed with reference to that purpose and so as to subserve it. Legal Tender Cases (1871) 79 US 457, 12 Wall 457, 20 L Ed 287.

Mere adherence to letter without reference to spirit and purpose of Constitution may mislead. Packet Co. v Keokuk (1877) 95 US 80, 5 Otto 80, 24 L Ed 377.


Return to Topic List 8.--Consideration of historical background

Courts, in construing Constitution, are obliged to resort to historical evidence, and to seek meaning of words in use and in opinion of those whose relations to government, and means of knowledge, warranted them in speaking with authority. Veazie Bank v Fenno (1869) 75 US 533, 8 Wall 533, 19 L Ed 482, 2 AFTR 2238.

Where construction of Constitution becomes necessary, Supreme Court must place itself as nearly as possible in condition of men who framed that instrument. Ex parte Bain (1887) 121 US 1, 30 L Ed 849, 7 S Ct 781 (ovrld as stated in United States v Cina (1983, CA7 Wis) 699 F2d 853) and (ovrld in part by United States v Miller (1985) 471 US 130, 85 L Ed 2d 99, 105 S Ct 1811) and (ovrld in part as stated in United States v Floresca (1994, CA4 W Va) 38 F3d 706) and (ovrld in part as stated in Wooley v United States (1997, Dist Col App) 697 A2d 777) and (ovrld in part as stated in United States v Lorefice (1999, CA7 Ill) 192 F3d 647) and (ovrld in part as stated in United States v Ross (2000, CA8 Minn) 210 F3d 916) and (ovrld in part by United States v Cotton (2002) 535 US 625, 152 L Ed 2d 860, 122 S Ct 1781, 2002 CDOS 4314, 1 FLW Fed S 287) and (ovrld as stated in United States v Longoria (2002, CA5 Tex) 298 F3d 367) and (ovrld as stated in Shaddon v United States (2002, CA8 Mo) 40 Fed Appx 342) and (ovrld as stated in United States v Ceballos (2002, CA7 Ind) 302 F3d 679) and (ovrld in part as stated in United States v Dyess (2003, SD W Va) 293 F Supp 2d 675) and (ovrld as stated in Patterson v United States (2004, ED Mich) 2004 US Dist LEXIS 12402) and (ovrld in part as stated in State v Gentry (2005) 363 SC 93, 610 SE2d 494).

Interpretation of Constitution is necessarily influenced by fact that its provisions are framed in language of English common law and are to be read in light of its history. Smith v Alabama (1888) 124 US 465, 31 L Ed 508, 8 S Ct 564; United States v Sanges (1892) 144 US 310, 36 L Ed 445, 12 S Ct 609.

When called upon to construe and apply provision of Constitution, Supreme Court must look, not merely to its language, but to its historical origin, and to those decisions of Supreme Court in which its meaning and scope of its operation have received deliberate consideration. Missouri v Illinois (1901) 180 US 208, 45 L Ed 497, 21 S Ct 331.

Grant of power in Constitution is construed according to fair and reasonable import of its terms, and its construction is not necessarily controlled by reference to what existed when Constitution was adopted. In re Jackson (1877, CCSDNY) 14 Blatchf 245, 13 F Cas 194, No 7124.


Return to Topic List 9.--Practical construction

Constitution must receive practical construction, and its limitations and implied prohibitions must not be extended so far as to destroy necessary powers of States or to prevent their efficient exercise. Railroad Co. v Peniston (1873) 85 US 5, 18 Wall 5, 21 L Ed 787.

Where there is ambiguity or doubt as to meaning of words in Constitution, or where two views may well be entertained, contemporaneous and subsequent practical construction is entitled to greatest weight. McPherson v Blacker (1892) 146 US 1, 36 L Ed 869, 13 S Ct 3.

Practical construction of provisions of Constitution by legislation is relied upon only in cases of doubt. Fairbank v United States (1901) 181 US 283, 45 L Ed 862, 21 S Ct 648 (ovrld as stated in United States v Woodley (1983, CA9 Hawaii) 726 F2d 1328).


Return to Topic List 10. Nature and powers of federal government

United States in their political capacity may enter into contract, or take bond in cases not previously provided for by some law. United States v Tingey (1831) 30 US 115, 5 Pet 115, 8 L Ed 66.

United States have capacity to take voluntary bond in cases within scope of powers delegated to general government by Constitution, through instrumentality of proper functionaries to whom these powers are confided. United States v Bradley (1836) 35 US 343, 10 Pet 343, 9 L Ed 448.

Federal government is one of delegated powers. Briscoe v President & Directors of Bank of Kentucky (1837) 36 US 257, 11 Pet 257, 9 L Ed 709.

Government of United States is supreme within its sphere of action. Dobbins v Commissioners of Erie County (circa 1842) 41 US 435, 16 Pet 435, 10 L Ed 1022, 4 AFTR 4507 (ovrld in part by Graves v New York (1939) 306 US 466, 83 L Ed 927, 59 S Ct 595, 39-1 USTC P 9411, 22 AFTR 290, 120 ALR 1466) and (superseded by statute as stated in United States v Pittsburgh (1985, CA3 Pa) 757 F2d 43) and (ovrld in part by North Dakota v United States (1990) 495 US 423, 109 L Ed 2d 420, 110 S Ct 1986, 36 CCF P 75866) and (ovrld as stated in Alarid v Secretary of the N.M. Dep't of Taxation & Revenue (1994, App) 118 NM 23, 878 P2d 341) and (ovrld in part as stated in Oklahoma Tax Comm'n v Chickasaw Nation (1995) 515 US 450, 132 L Ed 2d 400, 115 S Ct 2214, 95 CDOS 4519, 95 Daily Journal DAR 7750, 95 TNT 116-17) and (ovrld as stated in Jefferson County v Acker (1996, CA11 Ala) 92 F3d 1561, 10 FLW Fed C 295) and (ovrld as stated in NACCO Indus. v Tracy (1997) 79 Ohio St 3d 314, 1997 Ohio 368, 681 NE2d 900).

National government, though supreme within its own sphere, is one of limited jurisdiction and specific functions, and it has no faculties but such as Constitution has given it, either expressly or incidentally by necessary intendment. Pacific Ins. Co. v Soule (1869) 74 US 433, 7 Wall 433, 19 L Ed 95, 2 AFTR 2233.

United States are a nation, whose powers of government, legislative, executive, and judicial, within sphere of action confided to it by Constitution, are supreme and paramount. In re Quarles (1895) 158 US 532, 39 L Ed 1080, 15 S Ct 959.

Entire strength of nation may be used to enforce, in any part of land, full and free exercise of all national powers and security of all rights entrusted by Constitution to its care. In re Debs (1895) 158 US 564, 39 L Ed 1092, 15 S Ct 900.

Powers not granted to United States by Constitution are prohibited. United States v Butler (1936) 297 US 1, 80 L Ed 477, 56 S Ct 312, 4 Ohio Ops 401, 36-1 USTC P 9039, 16 AFTR 1289, 102 ALR 914 (criticized in Pace v Bogalusa City Sch. Bd. (2005, CA5 La) 403 F3d 272).


Return to Topic List 11.--Relationship among branches of government

Powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary departments are co-ordinate in degree to extent of powers delegated to each of them. Dodge v Woolsey (1855) 59 US 331, 18 How 331, 15 L Ed 401, 4 AFTR 4528.

Government of United States is one of limited powers, and no department possesses any authority not granted by Constitution. Hepburn v Griswold (1870) 75 US 603, 8 Wall 603, 19 L Ed 513.

Executive, legislative, and judicial departments are all of limited and defined powers. Loan Ass'n v Topeka (1875) 87 US 655, 20 Wall 655, 22 L Ed 455 (ovrld as stated in Common Cause v State (1983, Me) 455 A2d 1).

It is fundamentally necessary that each of three general departments of government be maintained entirely free from control or coercive influence, direct or indirect, of either of others. Humphrey's Ex'r v United States (1935) 295 US 602, 79 L Ed 1611, 55 S Ct 869.

Courts may not invade executive departments to correct alleged mistakes arising out of abuse of discretion, for to do so would interfere with performance of governmental functions and vitally affect interests of United States. Ainsworth v Barn Ballroom Co. (1946, CA4 Va) 157 F2d 97.


Return to Topic List 12.--Relations with foreign governments

United States, in their relation to foreign countries, and their subjects or citizens, is one nation. The Chinese Exclusion Case (1889) 130 US 581, 32 L Ed 1068, 9 S Ct 623.

Investment of federal government with powers of external sovereignty did not depend upon affirmative grants of Constitution. United States v Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936) 299 US 304, 81 L Ed 255, 57 S Ct 216.

Where sovereignty over certain land changed from Mexico to United States, private ownership remained same, and decree of Mexican governor, entered before such change of sovereignty, expropriating land and proclaiming title thereof to be in his state, if lawful under constitution and laws of Mexico, was effective under laws of United States. Shapleigh v Mier (1937) 299 US 468, 81 L Ed 355, 57 S Ct 261, 113 ALR 253.


Return to Topic List 13.--Relations with state governments

With exception of limitations upon state authorities given exclusively to federal government, states are supreme, and their sovereignty cannot be invaded by action of general government. Worcester v Georgia (1832) 31 US 515, 6 Pet 515, 8 L Ed 483 (ovrld as stated in New Mexico v Mescalero Apache Tribe (1983) 462 US 324, 76 L Ed 2d 611, 103 S Ct 2378) and (superseded by statute as stated in Arizona v San Carlos Apache Tribe (1983) 463 US 545, 77 L Ed 2d 837, 103 S Ct 3201, 13 ELR 20817) and (ovrld as stated in People ex rel. Dep't of Transportation v Naegele Outdoor Advertising Co. (1984, 4th Dist) 152 Cal App 3d 516, 199 Cal Rptr 605) and (superseded by statute as stated in Three Affiliated Tribes of Ft. Berthold Reservation v Wold Engineering, P. C. (1984) 467 US 138, 81 L Ed 2d 113, 104 S Ct 2267) and (criticized in United States ex rel. Saginaw Chippewa Tribe v Michigan (1995, ED Mich) 882 F Supp 659).

While state is sovereign within its territorial limits to certain extent, that sovereignty is limited and restricted by Constitution. Ableman v Booth (1859) 62 US 506, 21 How 506, 16 L Ed 169.

Government of United States and of state are distinct and independent of each other within their respective spheres of action although existing and exercising their powers within same territorial limits. Tarble's Case (1871) 80 US 397, 13 Wall 397, 20 L Ed 597.

Powers of government are divided into four classes: those belonging exclusively to state; those belonging exclusively to national government; those which may be exercised concurrently and independently by both; and those which may be exercised by states, but only until Congress shall see fit to act upon subject. Ex parte McNiel (1872) 80 US 236, 13 Wall 236, 20 L Ed 624.

United States government is as sovereign within its sphere as states are within theirs. Kohl v United States (1876) 91 US 367, 1 Otto 367, 23 L Ed 449 (criticized in United States v 243.22 Acres of Land (1941, DC NY) 41 F Supp 805).

Federal system is one of delegated powers alone, and administration of criminal justice rests with states except as Congress, acting within scope of delegated powers, has created offenses against United States. Screws v United States (1945) 325 US 91, 89 L Ed 1495, 65 S Ct 1031, 162 ALR 1330.

If grant of power to federal government is found, objection of invasion of rights of states under Ninth and Tenth Amendments must fall. United Public Workers v Mitchell (1947) 330 US 75, 91 L Ed 754, 67 S Ct 556 (ovrld as stated in Joseph v United States Civil Serv. Comm'n (1977, App DC) 180 US App DC 281, 554 F2d 1140).

Power of state to determine limits of jurisdiction of its courts and character of controversies which shall be heard in them is subject to restrictions imposed by federal Constitution. Angel v Bullington (1947) 330 US 183, 91 L Ed 832, 67 S Ct 657.

Congress is vested with absolute right to designate persons to whom real property belonging to United States shall be transferred, and to prescribe conditions and mode of transfer; state has no power to interfere with that right or to embarrass exercise of it. United States v Board of Comm'rs (1944, CA10 Wyo) 145 F2d 329, cert den (1944) 323 US 804, 89 L Ed 641, 65 S Ct 563.

United States is not foreign sovereignty as regards several states, but is concurrent, and, within its jurisdiction, paramount authority. People ex rel. Woll v Graber (1946) 394 Ill 362, 68 NE2d 750; Kersting v Hardgrove (1946) 24 NJ Misc 243, 48 A2d 309.


Return to Topic List 14. Relations among state governments

While for all national purposes embraced by Constitution, states and citizens are one, united under same sovereign authority, and governed by same laws, in all other respects states are necessarily foreign and independent of each other. Buckner v Finley (1829) 27 US 586, 2 Pet 586, 7 L Ed 528.

States are sovereign within their own boundaries and foreign to each other, when regarded as local governments. Bank of United States v Daniel (1838) 37 US 32, 12 Pet 32, 9 L Ed 989.

States of Union are sovereign states, and they have adopted, towards each other, laws of comity in their fullest extent. Bank of Augusta v Earle (1839) 38 US 519, 13 Pet 519, 10 L Ed 274 (ovrld as stated in Hughes v A.H. Robins Co. (1985, Dist Col App) 490 A2d 1140) and (criticized in Interpool Ltd. v Bernuth Agencies (1997, SD NY) 959 F Supp 644).



โดย: POL_US วันที่: 6 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:15:25:00 น.  

 

Return to Topic List 15. Standing to raise constitutional questions

Employee invoking Arizona workmen's compensation act was without standing to question its constitutionality. Ison v Western Vegetable Distribs. (1936) 48 Ariz 104, 59 P2d 649.

That persons objecting to sale of land for taxes do not contest validity of taxes does not result in their having no standing in court when they specially appear to object to court's proceeding based on unconstitutional act. In re Auditor General (1936) 275 Mich 462, 107 NW 279, 266 NW 464.

Party invoking provisions of statute is not in position to raise question as to its constitutionality. State ex rel. Sorensen v Southern Nebraska Power Co. (1936) 131 Neb 472, 268 NW 284, app dismd (1936) 299 US 520, 81 L Ed 383, 57 S Ct 323.


Return to Topic List 16.--Necessity of injury

One who would strike down state statute as obnoxious to Federal Constitution must show that alleged unconstitutional feature injures him. Premier-Pabst Sales Co. v Grosscup (1936) 298 US 226, 80 L Ed 1155, 56 S Ct 754.

Courts have no power per se to review and annul acts of Congress as unconstitutional; question may be considered only when some direct injury is suffered or threatened, presenting justiciable issue. In re 620 Church Street Bldg. Corp. (1936) 299 US 24, 81 L Ed 16, 57 S Ct 88, reh den (1936) 299 US 623, 81 L Ed 458, 57 S Ct 229; Kuehner v Irving Trust Co. (1937) 299 US 445, 81 L Ed 340, 57 S Ct 298; Sparks v Hart Coal Corp. (1934, CA6 Ky) 74 F2d 697; Liberty Nat'l Bank v Collins (1944) 388 Ill 549, 58 NE2d 610.

Railroad company, in proceedings involving validity of certain provisions of Railway Labor Act, can complain only of infringement of its own constitutional immunity, not that of its employees. Virginian R. Co. v System Federation, R. E. D., etc. (1936) 299 US 529, 81 L Ed 389, 57 S Ct 43.

Statute cannot be held unconstitutional as laying down a rule of evidence and presumption contrary to due process where party complaining does not allege how rule declared will affect his case. Anniston Mfg. Co. v Davis (1937) 301 US 337, 81 L Ed 1143, 57 S Ct 816, 37-1 USTC P 9299, 19 AFTR 492, reh den (1937) 302 US 772, 82 L Ed 599, 58 S Ct 3, 19 AFTR 1193.

Only those to whom statute applies and who are adversely affected by it can draw in question its constitutional validity. Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory (1945) 325 US 450, 89 L Ed 1725, 65 S Ct 1384, 16 BNA LRRM 722, 9 CCH LC P 51209.

Bus passenger arrested for not obeying state segregation statute was proper person to challenge validity of statute as burden on interstate commerce. Morgan v Virginia (1946) 328 US 373, 90 L Ed 1317, 66 S Ct 1050, 165 ALR 574.

Contention that § 11(b)(2) of Public Utility Holding Company Act (15 USCS § 79k(b)(2)) is void in absence of express provision for notice and opportunity for hearing as to security holders regarding proceedings under that section can be raised properly only by security holder who has suffered injury due to lack of notice or opportunity for hearing. American Power & Light Co. v SEC (1946) 329 US 90, 91 L Ed 103, 67 S Ct 133.

Power of courts, and ultimately United States Supreme Court, to pass upon constitutionality of acts of Congress arises only when interests of litigants require use of this judicial authority for their protection against actual interference; hypothetical threat is not enough. United Public Workers v Mitchell (1947) 330 US 75, 91 L Ed 754, 67 S Ct 556 (ovrld as stated in Joseph v United States Civil Serv. Comm'n (1977, App DC) 180 US App DC 281, 554 F2d 1140).

Physician indicted for violating federal narcotic statute could not question constitutionality of provision which he was not accused of violating. Mauk v United States (1937, CA9 Or) 88 F2d 557, cert den (1937) 302 US 684, 82 L Ed 527, 58 S Ct 17.

Taxpayer alleging unconstitutionality of statute must show not only that statute is invalid, but that he has sustained some direct injury as result of its enforcement. Manne v Commissioner (1946, CA8) 155 F2d 304, 46-1 USTC P 9261, 34 AFTR 1339.

No court will consider constitutionality of statute unless record before it affords adequate factual basis for determining whether challenged statute applies to and adversely affects one who draws it in question. Buscaglia v Fiddler (1946, CA1 Puerto Rico) 157 F2d 579, 35 AFTR 311.

Producers of milk with contracts to sell to dealers in area covered by order of Secretary of Agriculture, establishing uniform prices in such area and providing penalties for dealers not complying, had no standing entitling them to sue to restrain enforcement of order without waiting until injury occurred. Wallace v Ganley (1938) 68 App DC 235, 95 F2d 364.

One cannot question constitutionality of rezoning statute unless he shows that zoning he seeks would have been granted had statute not been passed. Garrity v District of Columbia (1936, Dist Col App) 66 App DC 256, 86 F2d 207.


Return to Topic List 17. Determination of constitutional questions

Preamble of statute, though not constituting "legislation," is to be considered in determining constitutionality. Carter v Carter Coal Co. (1936) 298 US 238, 80 L Ed 1160, 56 S Ct 855, motion gr sub nom Helvering v Carter (1936, US) 17 AFTR 1344.

In determining constitutionality of statute based upon fact question fairly open to differences of opinion, Supreme Court will carry into effect opinion of legislature. Old Dearborn Distributing Co. v Seagram-Distillers Corp. (1936) 299 US 183, 81 L Ed 109, 57 S Ct 139, 7 Ohio Ops 146, 106 ALR 1476.

Courts will not go beyond issues raised, and decide momentous questions not contained within framework of pleadings or evidence. Korematsu v United States (1944) 323 US 214, 89 L Ed 194, 65 S Ct 193, reh den (1945) 324 US 885, 89 L Ed 1435, 65 S Ct 674 and (superseded by statute as stated in Adarand Constructors v Pena (1995) 515 US 200, 132 L Ed 2d 158, 115 S Ct 2097, 95 CDOS 4381, 95 Daily Journal DAR 7503, 67 BNA FEP Cas 1828, 40 CCF P 76756, 66 CCH EPD P 43556) and (criticized in Holmes v California Army Nat'l Guard (1996, ND Cal) 920 F Supp 1510) and (criticized in Arakaki v Hawaii (2000, DC Hawaii) 2000 US Dist LEXIS 22394).

United States Supreme Court will not pass upon constitutionality of legislation where litigation is not adversary. CIO v McAdory (1945) 325 US 472, 89 L Ed 1741, 65 S Ct 1395, 16 BNA LRRM 731, 9 CCH LC P 51210.

Law is not unconstitutional merely because it results in financial injury to citizen, where it is reasonably necessary to preserve important public interests; neither is it unconstitutional because it preserves one interest over another, if there is preponderant public concern in such preservation. Porter v Shibe (1946, CA10 Kan) 158 F2d 68.

Extraordinary conditions do not create or enlarge constitutional power, but such conditions must be considered in determining constitutional scope of congressional authority. Miller v Municipal Court of Los Angeles (1943) 22 Cal 2d 818, 142 P2d 297.


Return to Topic List 18.--Avoiding determination of constitutionality except where necessary

Where bankruptcy court found that plan of corporate reorganization was not workable and dismissed proceeding, it was error for Court of Appeals, on appeal from determination, to find that portion of reorganization statute was unconstitutional, there being no necessity for such determination. Tennessee Publishing Co. v American Nat'l Bank (1936) 299 US 18, 81 L Ed 13, 57 S Ct 85.

When validity of act of Congress is drawn into question, and even if serious doubt of constitutionality is raised, Supreme Court will first ascertain whether construction of statute is fairly possible by which question may be avoided. Wright v Vinton Branch of Mountain Trust Bank (1937) 300 US 440, 81 L Ed 736, 57 S Ct 556, 8 Ohio Ops 301, 112 ALR 1455.

In action to test validity of state statute imposing license tax on chain stores, court, having upheld law with respect to intrastate business, will not render advisory decree as to possible unconstitutional enforcement of statute with respect to interstate commerce. Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. v Grosjean (1937) 301 US 412, 81 L Ed 1193, 57 S Ct 772, 112 ALR 293, reh den (1937) 302 US 772, 82 L Ed 599, 58 S Ct 3.

Court will inquire into constitutionality of statute only when and to extent that case before it requires entry upon that duty. Spector Motor Service, Inc. v McLaughlin (1944) 323 US 101, 89 L Ed 101, 65 S Ct 152; Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory (1945) 325 US 450, 89 L Ed 1725, 65 S Ct 1384, 16 BNA LRRM 722, 9 CCH LC P 51209; Chas. C. Steward Mach. Co. v Davis (1937, CA5 Ala) 89 F2d 207, 19 AFTR 295, affd (1937) 301 US 548, 81 L Ed 1279, 57 S Ct 883, 19 AFTR 510, 109 ALR 1293.

The courts ought not to pass on constitutionality of act of Congress unless such adjudication is unavoidable; this is true even though question is properly presented by record; if two questions are raised, one of nonconstitutional and other of constitutional nature, and decision of nonconstitutional question would make unnecessary decision of constitutional question, former should be decided. Alma Motor Co. v Timken-Detroit Axle Co. (1946) 329 US 129, 91 L Ed 128, 67 S Ct 231, 71 USPQ 254.

While it is duty of courts, whenever they can, to interpret statutes in such manner as to avoid doubt of constitutionality, there is also duty to avoid absurdity or injustice. Consumers Union of United States, Inc. v Walker (1944, App DC) 79 US App DC 229, 145 F2d 33.

Statute will not be so construed as to raise grave doubts as to its constitutionality. Uebersee Finanz--Korporation, A. G. v Markham (1946, App DC) 81 US App DC 284, 158 F2d 313, affd (1947) 332 US 480, 92 L Ed 88, 68 S Ct 174.


Return to Topic List 19.--Presumption in favor of constitutionality

Law will not be declared unconstitutional unless opposition between law and Constitution is clear and plain. Fletcher v Peck (1810) 10 US 87, 6 Cranch 87, 3 L Ed 162.

Statute is not to be pronounced void unless repugnancy to Constitution be clear, and conclusion that it exists inevitable. Pine Grove v Talcott (1874) 86 US 666, 19 Wall 666, 22 L Ed 227 (ovrld as stated in De Witt Twp. v Clinton County (1982) 113 Mich App 709, 319 NW2d 2).

Every legislative act is to be presumed to be constitutional exercise of legislative power until contrary is clearly established. Close v Glenwood Cemetery (1883) 107 US 466, 17 Otto 466, 27 L Ed 408, 2 S Ct 267.

Presumption that statute is enacted in good faith, for purpose expressed in title, cannot control final determination whether it is repugnant to Constitution. Minnesota v Barber (1890) 136 US 313, 34 L Ed 455, 10 S Ct 862.

There is a presumption that law challenged is constitutional. West Coast Hotel Co. v Parrish (1937) 300 US 379, 81 L Ed 703, 57 S Ct 578, 8 Ohio Ops 89, 1 BNA LRRM 754, 1 CCH LC P 17021, 108 ALR 1330 (criticized in Roe v Butterworth (1997, SD Fla) 958 F Supp 1569, 10 FLW Fed D 603); Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory (1945) 325 US 450, 89 L Ed 1725, 65 S Ct 1384, 16 BNA LRRM 722, 9 CCH LC P 51209; Nev-Cal Electric Sec. Co. v Imperial Irr. Dist. (1936, CA9 Cal) 85 F2d 886, cert den (1937) 300 US 662, 81 L Ed 871, 57 S Ct 493.

United States Supreme Court gives narrower scope for operation of presumption of constitutionality when legislation appears on its face to violate specific prohibition of the Constitution. Ex parte Mitsuye Endo (1944) 323 US 283, 89 L Ed 243, 65 S Ct 208.

Courts favor that interpretation of legislation which gives it greater chance of surviving test of constitutionality. Ex parte Mitsuye Endo (1944) 323 US 283, 89 L Ed 243, 65 S Ct 208; Screws v United States (1945) 325 US 91, 89 L Ed 1495, 65 S Ct 1031, 162 ALR 1330; Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory (1945) 325 US 450, 89 L Ed 1725, 65 S Ct 1384, 16 BNA LRRM 722, 9 CCH LC P 51209.

When statute is assailed as unconstitutional, court is bound to assume existence of any state of facts which would sustain statute in whole or in part. Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory (1945) 325 US 450, 89 L Ed 1725, 65 S Ct 1384, 16 BNA LRRM 722, 9 CCH LC P 51209.

Ordinance should be given construction in favor of validity if possible, rather than one rendering it void. Sedalia ex rel. Ferguson v Shell Petroleum Corp. (1936, CA8 Mo) 81 F2d 193, 106 ALR 1327.

If zoning ordinance is within legislative power of city, all presumptions must be indulged in favor of its validity. Geneva Inv. Co. v St. Louis (1937, CA8 Mo) 87 F2d 83, cert den (1937) 301 US 692, 81 L Ed 1348, 57 S Ct 795.

Legislative act should not be declared void unless its unconstitutionality appears beyond every reasonable doubt and such ruling is necessary to disposition of case. Elliott v El Paso Electric Co. (1937, CA5 Tex) 88 F2d 505, cert den (1937) 301 US 710, 81 L Ed 1363, 57 S Ct 945.

Burden is on one who attacks, as invalid, legislative enactment to negative every conceivable basis which might support it. South Porto Rico Sugar Co. v Buscaglia (1946, CA1 Puerto Rico) 154 F2d 96.

While courts should be alert to prevent encroachment upon constitutional guarantees, right to such protection is matter of proof with burden upon one alleging such protection. Lotto v United States (1946, CA8 Iowa) 157 F2d 623, cert den (1947) 330 US 811, 91 L Ed 1266, 67 S Ct 1082.


Return to Topic List 20.--Separability

Same statute may be in part constitutional and in part unconstitutional, and if parts are wholly independent of each other, that which is constitutional may stand, while that which is unconstitutional will be rejected. Marshall Field & Co. v Clark (1892) 143 US 649, 36 L Ed 294, 12 S Ct 495.

Ordinarily, presumption is that provisions of act are inseparable, but "separability clause" reverses this presumption and passes burden upon party challenging validity of act to show inseparability of its provisions. Carter v Carter Coal Co. (1936) 298 US 238, 80 L Ed 1160, 56 S Ct 855, motion gr sub nom Helvering v Carter (1936, US) 17 AFTR 1344.

Oil producers accepting certain benefits under Texas regulatory act were entitled to challenge validity of other, separate provisions of act. Thompson v Consolidated Gas Utilities Corp. (1937) 300 US 55, 81 L Ed 510, 57 S Ct 364."




หมายเหตุ ผู้รวบรวม ยังไม่มีเวลาในการแปลข้อความข้างต้น แต่เพื่อประโยชน์ในการค้นคว้าของผู้สนใจ จึงได้สำเนาข้อความข้างต้นมาไว้ โดยทั้งนี้ ไม่ได้จัดทำเพื่อประโยชน์ในการค้าใด ๆ


โดย: POL_US วันที่: 6 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:15:25:42 น.  

 
ไม่ต้องแปลหรอกครับ อ่านง่ายจะตาย อิอิ ว่าแต่ พี่พลหายหนาวแล้วเหรอครับ


โดย: ทนายต้น IP: 119.42.65.82 วันที่: 6 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:17:29:13 น.  

 


万事如意 ว่ าน ซื่อ ห ยูอี้ ....สมความปรารถนา

恭喜发财 ก งสี่ ฟา ไฉ ..ขอให้ร่ำรวย

财源广进 ไ ฉเ หยีย นก ว่า งจิ้ น... เงินทองไหลมา

招财进宝 เ จาไ ฉ่ จิ้น เป่ า.. เงินทองไหลมา

年年有余 เ ห นีย น เห นียนโห ย่ว หย วี๋. .เหลือกินเหลือใช้

事事顺利 ซื่ อซื่อ ซุ่นลี่ ..ทุกเรื่องราบรื่น

金玉满堂 จิ นย วี้ หม่า น ถัง.. ร่ำรวยเงินทอง

一本万利 อิ้ เปิ่น ว่าน ลี่ ... กำไรมากมาย

大吉大利 ต้ าจี๋ต้ า ลี่. .. ค้าขายได้กำไร

年年发财 เห นี ยนเ หนียน ฟ าไฉ ...ร่ำรวยตลอดไป

龙马精神 ห ลงหม่ า จิน เสิน . .สุขภาพแข็งแร ง

吉祥如意 จี๋ เสี ยง หยูอี้. . สมปรารถนา

好运年年 เห่ ายวิ่ นเห นียนเ หนียน ..โชคดีตลอดไป

四季平安 ซื่ จี้ผิง อัน ..ปลอดภัยตลอดปี

一帆风顺 อี้ ฝัน ฟงซุ่ น..ทุกอย่างราบรื่น


โดย: Susie วันที่: 6 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:19:50:58 น.  

 
พี่พลสบายดีนะครับ เห็นไปเที่ยวต้องหลายที่ ไม่ชวนกันเลยอิๆ
ผมว่ารัฐธรรมนูญของอเมริกากว่าเค้าจะได้มาต้องแลกด้วยอะไรหลายอย่างซึ่งไม่เหมือนกับของเราอะครับ


ป.ล รักษาสุขภาพให้แข็งแรงนะครับพี่พล รวยๆๆๆๆ


โดย: hi-jinarashi วันที่: 7 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:1:57:14 น.  

 
ขอบคุณที่แวะไปทักทายนะคะ สุขสันต์วันตรุษจีนด้วยค่ะ




โดย: Beebie วันที่: 7 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:6:13:04 น.  

 
เอาข้าวยำมาฝากคะ
ข้าวยำ3


โดย: patchchoy วันที่: 12 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:5:38:39 น.  

 
ขอบคุณครับที่แวะเข้ามา ... แม้ไม่ได้อ่านก็ตาม 5555

มีความสุขปีใหม่จีน ย้อนหลังทุกคนด้วยครับ


โดย: POL_US IP: 74.135.193.57 วันที่: 12 กุมภาพันธ์ 2551 เวลา:16:31:35 น.  

 
มีประโยชน์มากเลยค่ะ ขอบคุณเจ้าของBlog นี้นะคะ ขอให้ผลบุญหนุนนำให้ปราชญ์เปรื่องตลอดไปค่ะ..เพี้ยง


โดย: jj_kano@hotmail.com IP: 125.24.13.198 วันที่: 5 เมษายน 2551 เวลา:14:26:49 น.  

 
เต้ยโศรกๆไหแน ยกมือแกแดอยู่ข้างเวที เป็นเต้ยก็คือ ลำเต้ย


โดย: ทท IP: 203.131.211.150 วันที่: 16 กันยายน 2552 เวลา:0:58:57 น.  

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